CONSPIRACY THEORIES AND FAITH IN ROMANIA. WHAT THE ORTHODOX BLOGGERS SAY?

Dragoș  ȘAMȘUDEAN

doi:10.24193/subbeuropaea.2023.2.08

Authors

Dragoș ȘAMȘUDEAN Department of International Studies and Contemporary History, Faculty of History and Philosophy, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Email: dragos.samsudean@ubbcluj.ro. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4563-1733

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.24193/subbeuropaea.2023.2.08

Keywords:

Ortho-bloggers, conspiracy theories, Faith, Romania, perceptions

Abstract

The last twenty years have seen a rapid development of religion and conspiracy theories amid the expansion of digital technologies. This study seeks to address the gap in the literature on conspiracies and digital religion by focusing on the perception of Ortho-bloggers as a new type of religious actor emerging online, towards Faith and conspiracy theories in the Romanian Ortho-sphere. The study uses Romania as a case due to its Orthodox majority, good internet infrastructure, constant flow of conspiracies online and its unique geopolitical features. The findings point to a tendency among Ortho-bloggers towards thinking and sharing conspiracies.

References

Allington, Daniel, Beatriz L. Buarque, and Daniel Barker Flores (2021),“Antisemitic Conspiracy Fantasy in the Age of Digital Media: Three ‘Conspiracy Theorists’ and Their YouTube Audiences.” Language and Literature Vol.30, no. 1.

Allington, Daniel, Bobby Duffy, Simon Wessely, Nayana Dhavan, and James Rubin (2021), “Health-Protective Behaviour, Social Media Usage and Conspiracy Belief during the COVID-19 Public Health Emergency.” Psychological Medicine Vol.51, no. 10.

Andrade, Gabriel (2020), “Medical Conspiracy Theories: Cognitive Science and Implications for Ethics.” Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy Vol.23, no. 3

Aronovitch, D. (2009), Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History. London: Jonathan Cape.

Biddlestone, Mikey, Flavio Azevedo, and Sander van der Linden (2022), “Climate of Conspiracy: A Meta-Analysis of the Consequences of Belief in Conspiracy Theories about Climate Change.” Current Opinion in Psychology Vol.46.

Bierwiaczonek, Kinga, Aleksander B. Gundersen, and Jonas R. Kunst (2022), “The Role of Conspiracy Beliefs for COVID-19 Health Responses: A Meta-Analysis.” Current Opinion in Psychology Vol.46.

Bilewicz, Michał (2022),“Conspiracy Beliefs as an Adaptation to Historical Trauma.” Current Opinion in Psychology Vol.47,

Brotherton, Robert, Christopher C. French, and Alan D. Pickering (2013), “Measuring Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale.” Frontiers in Psychology Vol.4, no. MAY.

Bruns, Axel, Stephen Harrington, and Edward Hurcombe (2020), “‘Corona? 5G? Or Both?’: The Dynamics of COVID-19/5G Conspiracy Theories on Facebook.” Media International Australia Vol.177, no. 1.

Buturoiu, Raluca, Georgiana Udrea, Denisa Adriana Oprea, and Nicoleta Corbu (2021), “Who Believes in Conspiracy Theories about the Covid-19 Pandemic in Romania? An Analysis of Conspiracy Theories Believers’ Profiles.” Societies Vol.11, no. 4 .

Campbell, Heidi A., and Alessandra Vitullo (2016), “Assessing Changes in the Study of Religious Communities in Digital Religion Studies.” Church, Communication and Culture Vol.1, no. 1.

Cheng, Calvin Yixiang, Wanjiang Jacob Zhang, and Qiyue Zhang. (2022), “Authority-Led Conspiracy Theories in China during the COVID-19 Pandemic – Exploring the Thematic Features and Rhetoric Strategies.” Convergence Vol.28, no. 4.

Corbu, Nicoleta, Elena Negrea-Busuioc, Georgiana Udrea, and Loredana Radu (2021), “Romanians’ Willingness to Comply with Restrictive Measures during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from an Online Survey.” Journal of Applied Communication Research Vol.49, no. 4.

Dabija, Dan-Cristian, Raluca Babut, Vasile Dinu, and Madalina Ioana Lugojan (2017), “Cross-Generational Analysis of Information Searching Based on Social Media in Romania.” Transformations in Business & Economics Vol.16, no. 2.

Digi24 News (2020), “Site-ul ortodoxinfo.ro închis pentru fake news,” https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/sci-tech/lumea-digitala/site-ul-ortodoxinfo-ro-inchis-pentru-fake-news-se-pregateste-omorarea-pensionarilor-in-lagare-de-concentrare-si-exterminare-1297481. 07 December 2023

Douglas, Karen M., and Robbie M. Sutton (2023), “What Are Conspiracy Theories? A Definitional Approach to Their Correlates, Consequences, and Communication.” Annual Review of Psychology Vol.74.

Douglas, Karen M., Robbie M. Sutton, and Aleksandra Cichocka (2017),“The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories.” Current Directions in Psychological Science Vol.26, no. 6.

Douglas, Karen M., Joseph E. Uscinski, Robbie M. Sutton, Aleksandra Cichocka, Turkay Nefes, Chee Siang Ang, and Farzin Deravi (2019), “Understanding Conspiracy Theories.” Political Psychology Vol.40, no. S1.

Dow, Benjamin J., Amber L. Johnson, Cynthia S. Wang, Jennifer Whitson, and Tanya Menon (2021), “The COVID-19 Pandemic and the Search for Structure: Social Media and Conspiracy Theories.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass Vol.15, no. 9.

Dungaciu, Dan, and Lucian Dumitrescu (2019), “Romania’s Strategic Initiatives in the Black Sea Area: From Subregionalism to Peripheral Regionalism.” Journal of Southeast European and Black Sea Vol.19, no. 2.

Dyrendal, Asbjørn (2020), “Conspiracy Theory and Religion.” In Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories, edited by Michael Butter and Peter Knight, London: Routledge.

Enders, Adam M., and Steven M. Smallpage (2019), “Informational Cues, Partisan-Motivated Reasoning, and the Manipulation of Conspiracy Beliefs.” Political Communication Vol.36, no. 1.

Evolvi, Giulia (2018), “Blogging My Religion. Secular, Muslim, and Catholic Media Spaces in Europe.” In Routledge Studies in Religion and Digital Culture, edited by Heidi Campbell, Mia Lövheim, and Gregory Price Grieve. New York: Routledge.

Fong, Amos, Jon Roozenbeek, Danielle Goldwert, Steven Rathje, and Sander van der Linden (2021), “The Language of Conspiracy: A Psychological Analysis of Speech Used by Conspiracy Theorists and Their Followers on Twitter.” Group Processes and Intergroup Relations Vol.24, no. 4.

Forberg, Peter L (2022), “From the Fringe to the Fore: An Algorithmic Ethnography of the Far-Right Conspiracy Theory Group QAnon.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography Vol.51, no. 3.

Ford, Chandra L., Steven P. Wallace, Peter A. Newman, Sung Jae Lee, and William E. Cunningham (2013), “Belief in AIDS-Related Conspiracy Theories and Mistrust in the Government: Eelationship with HIV Testing among at-Risk Older Adults.” Gerontologist Vol.53, no. 6.

Freeman, Daniel, Felicity Waite, Laina Rosebrock, Ariane Petit, Chiara Causier, Anna East, Lucy Jenner, et al (2022), “Coronavirus Conspiracy Beliefs, Mistrust, and Compliance with Government Guidelines in England.” Psychological Medicine Vol.52, no. 2.

Frischlich, Lena (2022), “‘Resistance!’: Collective Action Cues in Conspiracy Theory-Endorsing Facebook Groups.” Media and Communication Vol.10, no. 2.

Gherghina, Sergiu, and Aurelian Plopeanu (2021), “Social Networks, Attachment and Integration: Understanding the Church Attendance of Romanian Migrants.” Journal of Beliefs and Values Vol.42, no. 1.

Gherghina, Sergiu, Mișcoiu Sergiu and Șamșudean Dragoș (2022), "Religion, Homosexuality and the EU: Grasping the Beliefs of Romanian Orthodox Priests", Sexuality, Gender & Policy, Vol.5, issue 2.

Grandinetti, Justin, and Jeffrey Bruinsma (2022), “The Affective Algorithms of Conspiracy TikTok.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media Vol.67, no. 1.

Green, Ricky, and Karen M. Douglas (2018), “Anxious Attachment and Belief in Conspiracy Theories.” Personality and Individual Differences Vol.125, no. December 2017.

Grieve, Gregory (2013), “Religion.” In Digital Religion: Understanding Religious Practice in New Media Worlds, edited by Heidi Campbell. New York: Routledge.

Grossman, Zachary, and Joël J. van der Weele (2017), “Self-Image and Willful Ignorance in Social Decisions.” Journal of the European Economic Association Vol.15, no. 1.

Gür-Şeker, Derya, Ute K. Boonen, and Michael Wentker (2022), “#conspiracymemes A Framework-Based Analysis of Conspiracy Memes as Digital Multimodal Units and Ensuing User Reactions on Instagram.” In Conspiracy Theory Discourses, edited by Massimiliano Demata, Virginia Zorzi, and Angela Zottola. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Hardin, Russell (2006), “Ignorant Democracy.” Critical Review 18, no. 1–3.

Helland, Christopher (2016), “Digital Religion.” In Digital Religion: Understanding Religious Practice in New Media Worlds, edited by Heidi Campbell, New York: Routledge.

Hogg, Robert, Busisiwe Nkala, Janan Dietrich, Alexandra Collins, Kalysha Closson, Zishan Cui, Steve Kanters, et al (2017), “Conspiracy Beliefs and Knowledge about HIV Origins among Adolescents in Soweto, South Africa.” PLoS ONE Vol.12, no. 2.

Keeley, Brian L (2007), “God as the Ultimate Conspiracy Theory.” Episteme Vol.4, no. 2 .

Kim, Minchul, and Xiaoxia Cao (2016), “The Impact of Exposure to Media Messages Promoting Government Conspiracy Theories on Distrust in the Government: Evidence from a Two-Stage Randomized Experiment.” International Journal of Communication Vol.10.

Kleinman, Daniel Lee, and Sainath Suryanarayanan, (2013), “Dying Bees and the Social Production of Ignorance.” Science Technology and Human Values Vol.38, no. 4.

Lewandowsky, Stephan, Dawn Holford, and Philipp Schmid (2022), “Public Policy and Conspiracies: The Case of Mandates.” Current Opinion in Psychology Vol.47.

Linden, Sander van der, Costas Panagopoulos, and Jon Roozenbeek (2020), “You Are Fake News: Political Bias in Perceptions of Fake News.” Media, Culture and Society Vol.42, no. 3.

Mallard, Grégoire, and Linsey McGoey (2018), “Strategic Ignorance and Global Governance: An Ecumenical Approach to Epistemologies of Global Power.” British Journal of Sociology Vol.69, no. 4.

Mancosu, Moreno, Salvatore Vassallo, and Cristiano Vezzoni (2017), “Believing in Conspiracy Theories: Evidence from an Exploratory Analysis of Italian Survey Data.” South European Society and Politics Vol.22, no. 3.

McGoey, Linsey (2020), “Micro-Ignorance and Macro-Ignorance in the Social Sciences.” Social Research: An International Quarterly Vol.87, no. 1.

Melton, Chad A., Olufunto A. Olusanya, Nariman Ammar, and Arash Shaban-Nejad (2021), “Public Sentiment Analysis and Topic Modeling Regarding COVID-19 Vaccines on the Reddit Social Media Platform: A Call to Action for Strengthening Vaccine Confidence.” Journal of Infection and Public Health Vol.14, no. 10 .

Min, Seong Jae (2021), “Who Believes in Conspiracy Theories? Network Diversity, Political Discussion, and Conservative Conspiracy Theories on Social Media.” American Politics Research Vol.49, no. 5.

Naeem, Salman Bin, Rubina Bhatti, and Aqsa Khan (2021), “An Exploration of How Fake News Is Taking over Social Media and Putting Public Health at Risk.” Health Information and Libraries Journal Vol.38, no. 2.

Newheiser, Anna Kaisa, Miguel Farias, and Nicole Tausch (2011), “The Functional Nature of Conspiracy Beliefs: Examining the Underpinnings of Belief in the Da Vinci Code Conspiracy.” Personality and Individual Differences Vol.51, no. 8.

Oleksy, Tomasz, Anna Wnuk, Dominika Maison, and Agnieszka Łyś. “Content Matters (2021), Different Predictors and Social Consequences of General and Government-Related Conspiracy Theories on COVID-19.” Personality and Individual Differences Vol.168, no. May 2020.

Ortho-blog OChilieAthonită (2023), “Marea Foamete Globală din 2025,” https://www.facebook.com/OChilieAthonita.

Ortho-blog OrthodoxINFO. “Anti-Guvern,” (2022). https://ortodoxinfo.ro/.07 December 2023

Ortho-blog Ortodox.brothers.ro. (2023), “Părintele Daniel Avram. Noi Nu Înțelegem Pentru Că Nu Îl Avem Pe Duhul Sfânt.,” https://www.instagram.com/ortodox.brothers.ro/.07 December 2023

Ortho-blog Orthodox Aquila (Acvila. “Acvila Ortodoxă,” n.d. https://acvilaortodoxa.wordpress.com/.07 December 2023

OrtodoxINFO-Comment 1. “ALARMĂ! În România Au Loc Adopții de Către Homosexuali!,” n.d. https://ortodoxinfo.ro/2021/11/15/alarma-in-romania-au-loc-adoptii-de-catre-homosexuali/.07 December 2023

OrtodoxINFO-Comment 3. “ALARMĂ! În România Au Loc Adopții de Către Homosexuali!,” n.d. https://ortodoxinfo.ro/2021/11/15/alarma-in-romania-au-loc-adoptii-de-catre-homosexuali/.07 December 2023

OrtodoxINFO-Comment 4. “ALARMĂ! În România Au Loc Adopții de Către Homosexuali!,” n.d. https://ortodoxinfo.ro/2021/11/15/alarma-in-romania-au-loc-adoptii-de-catre-homosexuali/.07 December 2023

OrtodoxINFO. “Identitatea Digitală – Tiranie, Nu Securitate!,” 2023. https://ortodoxinfo.ro/2023/11/30/identitatea-digitala-tiranie-nu-securitate/. 07 December 2023

OrtodoxINFO. (2023), “Presa Și Procurorii Atacă Orchestrat Biserica Ortodoxă Română. În Culisele Investigației Recorder-DNA,” https://ortodoxinfo.ro/2023/12/06/presa-si-procurorii-ataca-orchestrat-biserica-ortodoxa-romana-in-culisele-investigatiei-recorder-dna/. 07 December 2023

Pavela Banai, Irena, Benjamin Banai, and Igor Mikloušić (2022), “Beliefs in COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories, Compliance with the Preventive Measures, and Trust in Government Medical Officials.” Current Psychology 41, no. 10.

Penhall-Jones, and Margaret Leila (2022), “Self-Deception and Wilful Ignorance: ‘Self-Induced, Purported Ignorance?’” University of Adelaide, https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/handle/2440/135600.

Pirro, Andrea L.P., and Paul Taggart (2022), “Populists in Power and Conspiracy Theories.” Party Politics , no. April 2021.

Popa, Mihai, and Liviu Andreescu (2017), “Legal Provisions, Courts, and the Status of Religious Communities: A Socio-Legal Analysis of Inter-Religious Relations in Romania.” Religion, State and Society 45, no. 3–4.

Prooijen, Jan Willem van (2017), “Why Education Predicts Decreased Belief in Conspiracy Theories.” Applied Cognitive Psychology Vol.31, no. 1.

Prooijen, Jan Willem van, and Karen M. Douglas (2017), “Conspiracy Theories as Part of History: The Role of Societal Crisis Situations.” Memory Studies Vol.10, no. 3.

Pummerer, Lotte (2022), “Belief in Conspiracy Theories and Non-Normative Behavior.” Current Opinion in Psychology Vol.47.

Pummerer, Lotte, Robert Böhm, Lau Lilleholt, Kevin Winter, Ingo Zettler, and Kai Sassenberg (2022), “Conspiracy Theories and Their Societal Effects During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Social Psychological and Personality Science Vol.13, no. 1.

Robertson, D.G., E. Asprem, and A. Dyrendal (2019), “Introducing the Field: Conspiracy Theory in, about, and as Religion.” In Handbook of Conspiracy Theory and Contemporary Religion, edited by A. Dyrendal, D.G. Robertson, and E. Asprem, Leiden: Brill.

Robertson, David G (2017), “The Hidden Hand: Why Religious Studies Need to Take Conspiracy Theories Seriously.” Religion Compass Vol.11, no. 3–4.

Rogatchevski, Andrei (2011), “Space Exploration in Russian and Western Popular Culture: Wishful Thinking, Conspiracy Theories and Other Related Issues.” In Soviet Space Culture Cosmic Enthusiasm in Socialist Societies, edited by Eva Maurer, Julia Richers, Monica Rüthers, and Carmen Scheide. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

SACCSIV-Blog Ortodox. (2023). “Pornografia În Realitatea Virtuală a Înregistrat o Creștere a Vânzărilor / Planuri Pentru Implanturi Asupra Sistemului Nervos Și a Creierului.” Blog article, https://saccsiv.wordpress.com/2023/11/27/pornografia-in-realitatea-virtuala-a-inregistrat-o-crestere-a-vanzarilor-planuri-pentru-implanturi-asupra-sistemului-nervos-si-a-creierului/#more-104926. 07 December 2023

Șamșudean, Dragoș (2022), “Digital Orthodoxy. A Typology of Non-Institutionalized.” Baltic Words Vol.XV, no. 3–4.

Shestopalets, Denys (2020), “Religious Freedom, Conspiracies, and Faith: The Geopolitics of Ukrainian Autocephaly.” Review of Faith and International Affairs Vol.18, no. 3.

Somin, Ilya (2010), “Deliberative Democracy and Political Ignorance.” Critical Review Vol.22, no. 2.

Soral, W., A. Cichocka, M. Bilewicz, and M. Marchlewska (2018), “The Collective Conspiracy Mentality in Poland.” In Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them, edited by E. J. and Uscinski, New York: Oxford University Press.

Stephens, Monica (2020), “A Geospatial Infodemic: Mapping Twitter Conspiracy Theories of COVID-19.” Dialogues in Human Geography Vol.10, no. 2.

Sultănescu, Dana (2022), “War of the Words. The Online Conversation about NATO in Romania: Communicators, Content, Communities.” Romanian Journal of Communication and Public Relations Vol.24, no. 1.

Suslov, Michail, and Irina Kotkina (2015), “‘Ortho-Blogging’ from Inside: A Virtual Roundtable.” Digital Icons: Studies in Russian, Eurasian and Central European New Media Vol.14.

Sutton, Robbie M., and Karen M. Douglas (2020), “Conspiracy Theories and the Conspiracy Mindset: Implications for Political Ideology.” Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences Vol.34.

Swami, Viren, and David Barron (2021), “Rational Thinking Style, Rejection of Coronavirus (COVID-19) Conspiracy Theories/Theorists, and Compliance with Mandated Requirements: Direct and Indirect Relationships in a Nationally Representative Sample of Adults from the United Kingdom.” Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology Vol.15.

Tateo, Giuseppe (2022), “When Conspiracy Meets Faith Making Sense of Tragic Events in Bucharest, Romania.” In Religious Dimensions of Conspiracy Theories Comparing and Connecting Old and New Trends, edited by Francesco Piraino, Marco Pasi, and Egil Asprem. London: Routledge.

Thomas, Scott M. (2005), The Global Resurgence of Religion and the Transformation of International Relations. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Dialogue.

Tillman, Seth Barrett (2014), “Conspiracy Theories.” History Today 64, no. 2.

Turcescu, Lucian, and Lavinia Stan (2010), “The Romanian Orthodox Church and Democratisation: Twenty Years Later.” International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church Vol.10, no. 2–3.

Uscinski, Joseph E (2018), “The Study of Conspiracy Theories.” Argumenta Vol.3.

Uscinski, Joseph E., Darin DeWitt, and Matthew D. Atkinson (2018), “A Web of Conspiracy? Internet and Conspiracy Theory.” In Handbook of Conspiracy Theory and Contemporary Religion, edited by Asbjørn Dyrendal, David G. Robertson, and Egil Asprem, Leiden: Brill.

Yendell, Alexander, and David Herbert (2022), “Religion, Conspiracy Thinking, and the Rejection of Democracy: Evidence From the UK.” Politics and Governance Vol.10, no. 4.

Zarefsky, David (2014), “Conspiracy Arguments in the Lincoln-Douglas Debates.” Argumentation Library Vol.24.

Zasanska, Nadia D. (2019), “New Producers of Patriarchal Ideology: Matushki in Digital Media of Russian Orthodox Church.” ESSACHESS - Journal for Communication Studies Vol.12.